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Principles
We write reports for the attention of an interested but non-expert reader who is not necessarily familiar with the detailed EU or audit context. This requires ECA reports to be interesting, easy to read and provide a positive image of the ECA's work. Our reports are not popular journalism and we do not use sensationalism to attract attention. Nor should we write reports, which include overly detailed explanations of basic facts or can only be understood by policy experts.
The language used needs to be professional.
A well drafted report helps to ensure that the findings are taken seriously, whereas a poorly presented report will distract the reader, and may prompt questions about the quality of the findings.
The instructions below partially apply also for drafting of [multi-link title="clearing%20documents" link_1="%2Faware%2FGAP%2FPages%2FCA-FA%2FExamination%2FClearing.aspx" title_1="Compliance%20and%20financial" link_2="%2Faware%2FPA%2FPages%2FExamination%2FClearing.aspx" title_2="Performance" /]
. Clearing documents should use plain language, write short sentences, address only one issue in a paragraph, limit abbreviations and complicated words, and prefer the active voice to the passive. As clearing documents are destined for experts, they may use more technical language, but they should limit the use of EU jargon.
Instructions
Our reports are more likely to be easy to read and provide positive image of our work, if they are drafted in an accessible style, help the reader to see how arguments fit together, are persuasive, clear and consistent.
Accessible style
A common tendency in writing at the ECA (and many other bureaucracies) is the use of a style that is very impersonal. Such a style tends to put distance between the text and its readers, rather than engaging them so that they want to read on. Whilst the technical nature of our reports is inevitable, it is more likely that the casual reader will be encouraged to read further if the reports are accessible. This is more likely the case, if the text is kept short and simple. The advantages of brevity are obvious. Simple language is the best way to get your message across. People are more likely to read and understand what you have written if documents, sentences and words are shorter rather than longer. Voltaire: "The best way to be boring is to leave nothing out." Therefore:
- Avoid long paragraphs, they are intimidating. Split long paragraphs up.
- Write in short sentences where possible. Do not write long complicated sentences, with many clauses and sub-clauses. They are difficult to read, understand and translate. Often they are not necessary. When reviewing what you have written, do not be afraid to split sentences up. As a rule, aim for an average of no more than 20 words per sentence. Some sentences will naturally be longer, but they should be balanced by shorter ones.
- Keep to one main idea per sentence.
- Never use a long word where a short will do. It is sometimes tempting to use longer or 'more sophisticated' words in the mistaken belief that this will add elegance to what one is writing. Instead, the longer words often hide the true meaning; for instance compare vertically-challenged for short; enhanced interrogation techniques for torture; collateral damage for civilian deaths; exsanguinate for bleed to death; rodent operative for rat-catcher.
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[toggle title="Examples%20of%20alternative%2C%20shorter%20words"]
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approximate
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about, near
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operational
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active, working
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beneficial
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good, useful, helpful
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possibility
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chance, hope
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consequently
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so, therefore
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principal
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main, chief
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consideration
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review, thought
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prioritise
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rank, order, list
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component
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part, piece
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represent
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show, stand for
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demonstrate
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show, describe
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requirements
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needs, wants
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examine
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test, study
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remunerate
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reward, pay, award
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expend
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spend, pay
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transitory
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brief, passing
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integrate
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combine, unite
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substantial
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large, major, big
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interface
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join, meet
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termination
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end, finish
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negative
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bad, harmful, wrong
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'The Commission has no expectation that it will meet the deadline' is much better as: 'the Commission does not expect to meet the deadline.'
'There is a need for further study of this programme', is better as 'the Commission [or whoever] must study this programme further.'
The discussion concerned a change in grant regulations' is better as 'the member states discussed a change in grant regulations.'
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- Use 'we', 'us' and 'our' instead of 'the ECA/Court('s)'. This convention is designed to provide a more direct connection with the 'interested but non-expert reader'. It applies to the English language version of documents, as this is the most common drafting language. However, its use may not be appropriate in other languages, which naturally have their own tone and register. It is for the translators to decide on the most appropriate approach to take in each case.
Help understanding the flow
Clear [link title="structure" link="%2Faware%2FPA%2FPages%2FReporting%2Freport-structure.aspx" /]
and good signposting through [link title="headings" link="%2Faware%2FGAP%2FPages%2FHeadings.aspx" /]
will make it easier for the reader to understand the flow of a report's argument. Report-writers can provide further help to the reader by using:
- Indents or bullet points to present lists of items instead of continuous text. Not only do they add variety to the text but, by grouping items so clearly, they help the reader understand the logic of the argument. In fact, as a writer, the habit of looking to group items can help you to see patterns in your findings and can therefore assist in structuring text. Indents can be over-used; reports should not end up looking like shopping lists. When using them, do not have more than about six items in your list, and make sure that you punctuate them consistently. Numbering (i) (ii) etc. or lettering (a), (b) etc. is preferable to bullet points, to make referencing easier.
- Conjunctions at or near the start of sentences, providing they are used correctly, help the reader identify the train of thought such as however, in contrast, although, in addition, nevertheless, similarly. It is also acceptable occasionally to start sentences with and or but.
- proper use of punctuation can help understanding the sentence structure and thus avoid misunderstanding.
Conclusiveness
The reader expects the ECA reports to present our conclusions as definitively as possible and supported by evidence. Assertions must be affirmative, and not raise questions, supposition or uncertainty. Phrases such as 'it may be', 'may have', 'it appears that', 'it seems that' avoid providing definitive statements. They should not be used, unless completed by an explanation of why the ECA cannot arrive at a definitive conclusion. Such sentences undermine in readers' eyes the ECA's ability to some to robust and well supported conclusions, because the reader may wonder why it is that, having devoted considerable time and resources to an audit, we are unable to come to a definitive conclusion. However, there may be occasions when we have completed all the audit work that we could reasonably have done, but the evidence remains incomplete. In these circumstances, if we choose to make a judgement, we should be open and explicit in doing so: "on the basis of the limited evidence available, the ECA judged that it was likely that x was the case."
When an assertion represents the ECA's opinion, this must be disclosed, together with the basis for that opinion. When the assertion comes from another source, such as an evaluation report, then this needs to be explicitly recognised. Formulations such as 'It could be argued that'; 'some have said'; 'according to some critics'; 'it is said' prompt the reader to ask: who is making these allegations? Do the allegations have any validity? What does the ECA think? Therefore, the report-writers should avoid such formulations and disclose its source.
Clarity
The style must be clear. The meaning needs to be immediately apparent from the text, and not require the reader to interpret what is being said. [link title="Clear%20structure" link="%2Faware%2FPA%2FPages%2FReporting%2FReport-structure.aspx" /]
, [link title="good%20signposting" link="%2Faware%2FGAP%2FPages%2FHeadings.aspx" /]
, [link title="accessible%20style" link="%23Accessible-style" /]
and appropriate presentation of numbers and use of monetary symbols will all contribute to a clear report. Clarity can as well be improved by:
- Preferring the active to the passive. The use of active verbs and real subjects helps to avoid ambiguity as regards who is doing what. Often this is a crucial piece of information, particularly important for the subjects the ECA writes about, where there may be a number of parties involved such as the Commission, the member state, national and regional agencies, beneficiaries. If the identity of the agent is not clear, readers of the report not familiar with the mechanics of the European Union budget may not understand which organisation is under the spotlight. However, there are infrequent occasions when using the passive might be preferable, for instance when the receiver of the action is more interesting or important than the agent: 'One of the most controversial members of the European Parliament has been interviewed by press'. Furthermore, the passive takes energy away from what is said. All other things being equal, using the active voice tends to have more impact than the passive. Martin Luther King did not say: "a dream was had by me". Aim for a proportion of no more than 20 per cent of passive sentences (see
[link title="readability%20statistics" link="%23Tools" /]
).
- Avoiding
[link new-window title="misused%20ECA%20terminology" link="https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eca.europa.eu%2FOther%20publications%2FEN_TERMINOLOGY_PUBLICATION%2FEN_TERMINOLOGY_PUBLICATION.pdf%23page%3D7" icon="external-link" /]
.
Consistency
A report written in different styles in terms of approach and expression is difficult to read. It is recommended that one person be designated as responsible for ensuring consistent text throughout the report, even if different individuals are involved in drafting different parts of the report.
Style and typographic conventions aim to maintain a consistent style across the ECA's publications:
Resources
Report-writers can use the following tools to check their style:
[icons-list icon-size="2" separator="line" icon-vertical-alignment="middle" vertical-alignment="middle"]
[icon-list-item title="Microsoft%20Word%20readability%20statistics" description="can%20analyse%20your%20document%20for%20key%20statistics%20such%20as%20sentence%20or%20word%20length%2C%20proportion%20of%20sentences%20in%20the%20passive%20voice.%20It%20can%20be%20accessed%20through%20Tools%20under%20Eurolook%20menu." link="https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.office.com%2Fen-ie%2Farticle%2Fget-your-document-s-readability-and-level-statistics-85b4969e-e80a-4777-8dd3-f7fc3c8b3fd2" icon="external-link" /]
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Styleguides and checklist
[icons-list icon-size="2" separator="line" icon-vertical-alignment="middle" vertical-alignment="middle"]
[icon-list-item title="European%20Commission%3A%20How%20to%20write%20clearly" link="https%3A%2F%2Fop.europa.eu%2Fen%2Fpublication-detail%2F-%2Fpublication%2F725b7eb0-d92e-11e5-8fea-01aa75ed71a1%2Flanguage-en" description="provides%20hints%20on%20clear%20writing." icon="external-link" linking="new-window" /]
[icon-list-item title="European%20Commission%3A%20Claire's%20Clear%20Writing%20Tips" link="https%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Finfo%2Fsites%2Finfo%2Ffiles%2Fclear_writing_tips_en.pdf" description="presents%20some%20detailed%20practical%20tips%20to%20help%20EU%20staff%20avoid%20common%20pitfalls%20and%20draft%20more%20clearly.%20It%20expands%20upon%20the%20guide%20How%20to%20write%20clearly." icon="external-link" linking="new-window" /]
[icon-list-item title="Misused%20English%20words%20and%20expressions%20in%20EU%20publications" link="https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eca.europa.eu%2FOther%20publications%2FEN_TERMINOLOGY_PUBLICATION%2FEN_TERMINOLOGY_PUBLICATION.pdf" description="lists%20words%20that%20do%20not%20exist%20or%20are%20relatively%20unknown%20to%20native%20English%20speakers%20outside%20the%20EU%20institutions%20and%20often%20even%20to%20standard%20spellcheckers%2Fgrammar%20checkers%20and%20words%20that%20are%20used%20with%20a%20meaning%2C%20often%20derived%20from%20other%20languages%2C%20that%20is%20not%20usually%20found%20in%20English%20dictionaries." icon="external-link" linking="new-window" /]
[icon-list-item title="Interinstitutional%20style%20guide" description="is%20used%20as%20an%20additional%20reference%20in%20the%20ECA%20publication%20guidelines" link="https%3A%2F%2Fpublications.europa.eu%2Fcode%2Fen%2Fen-000100.htm" icon="external-link" linking="new-window" /]
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